Timeline of Psychology

Timeline of Modern Psychology

1878 - G. Stanley Hall becomes the first American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology. Hall eventually founds the American Psychological Association.
1879 – Wilhelm Wundt founds the first experimental psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany. The event is considered the starting point of psychology as a separate science.
1881 --Wundt forms the professional journal Philosophische Studien (Philosophical Studies)
1883 - G. Stanley Hall opens the first experimental psychology lab in the United States at John Hopkins University.
1885 - Herman Ebbinghaus published his famous Über das Gedächtnis ("On Memory"), which was later translated to English as Memory. A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. In the work, he describes his learning and memory experiments that he conducted on himself.
1886 – Sigmund Freud begins providing therapy to patients in Vienna, Austria.
1888 - James McKeen Cattell becomes the first professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania.
1890 - James McKeen Cattell publishes Mental Tests and Measurements, marking the beginning of the practice of psychological assessment.
-William James publishes Principles of Psychology.
-Sir Francis Galton creates correlation technique to better understand relationships between variable in intelligence studies.
1892 --G. Stanley Hall forms the American Psychological Association (APA), which initially has just 42 members.
- Wundt’s student Edward B. Titchener moves to America.
1894 - Margaret Floy Washburn completes her training under Tichener.
1895 - Alfred Binet forms the first psychology lab devoted to psychodiagnosis.
1898 - Edward Thorndike develops the Law of Effect.
1900 – Sigmund Freud publishes Interpretation of Dreams. 1901 - The British Psychological Society is formed.
1905 - Mary Whiton Calkins is elected the first woman president of the American Psychological Association.
- Alfred Binet publishes the intelligence test New Methods for the Diagnosis of the Intellectual Level of Subnormals.
1906 - Ivan Pavlov publishes his findings on classical conditioning.
- Morton Prince founds the Journal of Abnormal Psychology.
1907 – Carl Jung publishes The Psychology of Dementia Praecox.
1909 - Calkins publishes A First Book in Psychology.
1912 - Edward Thorndike publishes Animal Intelligence. The article leads to the development of the theory of operant conditioning.
- Max Wertheimer publishes Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement, leading to the development of Gestalt Psychology.
1913 – Carl Jung begins to depart from Freudian views and develops his own theories, which are eventually known as analytical psychology.
- John B. Watson publishes Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It. The work helped establish behaviorism, which viewed human behavior arising from conditioned responses.
1915 – Sigmund Freud publishes work on repression.
1917 - Then president of the APA, Robert Yerkes writes the Alpha and Beta Tests for the Army to test intelligence.
1919 - John B. Watson publishes Psychology, From the Standpoint of a Behaviorist.
1920 - Watson and Rosalie Rayner publish research the classical conditioning of fear with their subject, Little Albert.
1925 - Gestal Psychology is brought to America with the publication of Wolfgang Kohler’s Perception: An Introduction to the Gestalt Theory.
1932 - Jean Piaget becomes the foremost cognitive theorist with the publication of his work The Moral Judgment of Children.
1935 - Henry Murray publishes the Thematic Appreception Test (TAT).
1942 - Carl Rogers developed client-centered therapy and publishes Counseling and Psychotherapy. His approach encourages respect and positive regard for patients.
1952 - The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is published.
1954 - Abraham Maslow publishes Motivation and Personality, describing his theory of a hierarchy of needs. He also helps found humanistic psychology.
1958 - Harry Harlow publishes The Nature of Love, which describe his experiments with rhesus monkey's on the importance of attachment and love.
1961 - Albert Bandura conducts his now famous Bobo doll experiment.
1963 - Albert Bandura first describes the concept of observational learning to explain personality development.
1974 - Stanley Milgram publishes Obedience to Authority, which presented the findings of his famous obedience experiments.
1980 - The DSM-III is published.
1990 - Noam Chomsky publishes On Nature, Use and Acquisition of Language.
1991 - Steven Pinker publishes an article in Science introducing his theory of how children acquire language, which he later details further in his book The Language Instinct.
1994 - The DSM-IV is published.
2000 - Genetic researchers finish mapping human genes. Scientists hope to one day isolate the individual genes responsible for different diseases.
2002 - Steven Pinker publishes The Blank Slate, arguing against the concept of tabula rasa.

History of Psychology (387 BC to Present)

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387 BC	Plato suggested that the brain is the mechanism of mental processes.
335 BC	Aristotle suggested that the heart is the mechanism of mental processes.
1774 AD	Franz Mesmer detailed his cure for some mental illness, originally called mesmerism and now known as hypnosis.
1793	Philippe Pinel released the first mental patients from confinement in the first massive movement for more humane treatment of the mentally ill.
1808	Franz Gall wrote about phrenology (the idea that a person's skull shape and placement of bumps on the head can reveal personality traits.
1834	Ernst Heinrich Weber published his perception theory of 'Just Noticeable DIfference,' now known as Weber's Law.
1848	Phineas Gage suffered brain damage when an iron pole pierces his brain.  His personality was changed but his intellect remained intact suggesting that an area of the brain plays a role in personality.
1859	Charles Darwin published the On the Origin of Species, detailing his view of evolution and expanding on the theory of 'Survival of the fittest.'
1861	French physician Paul Broca discovered an area in the left frontal lobe that plays a key role in language development.
1869	Sir Francis Galton, Influenced by Charles Darwin's 'Origin of the Species,' publishes 'Hereditary Genius,' and argues that intellectual abilities are biological in nature.
1874	Carl Wernicke published his work on the frontal lobe, detailing that damage to a specific area damages the ability to understand  or produce language
1878	G. Stanley Hall received the first American Ph.D. in psychology.  He later founded the American Psychological Association.
1879	Wilhelm Wundt founded the first formal laboratory of Psychology at the University of Leipzig, marking the formal beginning of the study of human emotions, behaviors, and cognitions.
1883	The first laboratory of psychology in America is established at Johns Hopkins University.
1885	Herman Ebbinghaus introduced the nonsense syllable as a means to study memory processes.
1886	Sigmund Freud began performing therapy in Vienna, marking the beginning of personality theory.
1890	The term "Mental Tests" was coined by James Cattell, beginning the specialization in psychology now known as psychological assessment.
1890	Sir Francis Galton developed the technique known as the correlation to better understand the interrelationships in his intelligence studies.
1890	William James published 'Principles of Psychology,' that later became the foundation for functionalism.
1890	New York State passed the State Care Act, ordering indigent mentally ill patients out of poor-houses and into state hospitals for treatment and developing the first institution in the U.S. for psychiatric research.
1892	Foundation of the American Psychological Association (APA) headed by G. Stanley Hall, with an initial membership of 42.
1895	Alfred Binet founded the first laboratory of psychodiagnosis.
1896	Writings by John Dewey began the school of thought known as functionalism.
1896	The first psychological clinic was developed at the University of Pennsylvania marking the birth of clinical psychology.
1898	Edward Thorndike developed the 'Law of Effect,' arguing that "a stimulus-response chain is strengthened if the outcome of that chain is positive."
1900	Sigmund Freud published 'Interpretation of Dreams' marking the beginning of Psychoanalytic Thought.
1901	The British Psychological Society was founded.
1905	Alfred Binet's Intelligence Test was published in France.
1906	The Journal of Abnormal Psychology was founded by Morton Prince.
1906	Ivan Pavlov published the first studies on Classical Conditioning.
1911	Alfred Adler left Freud's Psychoanalytic Group to form his own school of thought, accusing Freud of overemphasizing sexuality and basing his theory on his own childhood.
1911	Edward Thorndike published first article on animal intelligence leading to the theory of Operant Conditioning.
1912	William Stern developed the original formula for the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) after studying the scores on Binet's intelligence test.  The formula is ( x100 was introduced later by Terman to remove fractinal value)
1912	Max Wertheimer published research on the perception of movement, marking the beginnings of Gestalt Psychology.
1913	John E. Watson published 'Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It' marking the beginnings of Behavioral Psychology.
1913	Carl G. Jung departed from Freudian views and developed his own theories citing Freud's inability to acknowledge religion and spirituality.  His new school of thought became known as Analytical Psychology.
1916	Stanford-Binet intelligence test was published in the United States.
1917	Robert Yerkes (President of APA at the time) developed the Army Alpha and Beta Tests to measure intelligence in a group format.  The tests were adopted for use with all new recruits in the U.S. military a year later.
1920	John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner published the Little Albert experiments, demonstrating that fear could be classically conditioned.
1921	Psychological Corporation launched the first psychological test development company, not only commercializing psychological testing, but allowing testing to take place at offices and clinics rather than only at universities and research facilities.
1925	Wolfgang Kohler published 'The Mentality of Apes' which became a major component of Gestalt Psychology.
1927	Anna Freud, daughter of Sigmund Freud, published her first book expanding her father's ideas in the treatment of children.
1929	Wolfgang Kohler criticizes behaviorism in his publication on Gestalt Psychology.
1932	Jean Piaget published 'The Moral Judgment of Children' beginning his popularity as the leading theorist in cognitive development.
1932	Walter B. Cannon coined the term homeostasis and began research on the fight or flight phenomenon.
1935	Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was published by Henry Murray.
1936	Egas Moniz published his work on frontal lobotomies as a treatment for mental illness.
1938	Electroshock therapy was first used on a human patient.
1939	Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Test was published which eventually became the most widely used intellectual assessment.
1939	The Canadian Psychological Associated was founded.
1942	Carl Rogers published 'Counseling and Psychotherapy' suggesting that respect and a non-judgmental approach to therapy is the foundation for effective treatment of mental health issues.
1942	Jean Piaget published 'Psychology of Intelligence' discussing his theories of cognitive development.
1942	Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was developed and fast became the most widely researched and widely accepted psychological assessment device.
1945	The state of Connecticut passed licensure legislation for psychologists, becoming the first state to recognize psychology as a protected practice oriented profession.
1945	The Journal of Clinical Psychology was founded.
1945	Karen Horney published her feministic views of psychoanalytic theory, marking the beginning of feminism.
1949	Boulder Conference outlines scientist-practitioner model of clinical psychology, looking at the M.D. versus Ph.D. used by medical providers and researchers, respectively.
1950	Erik Erikson published 'Childhood and Society,' where he expands Freud's Theory to include social aspects of personality development across the lifespan.
1952	A study on psychotherapy efficacy was published by Hans Eysenck suggesting that therapy is no more effective that no treatment at all.  This prompted an onslaught of outcome studies which have since shown psychotherapy to be an effective treatment for mental illness.
1952	The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) was published by The American Psychiatric Association marking the beginning of modern mental illness classification.
1952	Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) first used in the treatment of schizophrenia.
1953	B.F. Skinner outlined behavioral therapy, lending support for behavioral psychology via research in the literature.
1953	Code of Ethics for Psychologists was developed by the American Psychological Association.
1954	Abraham Maslow helped to found Humanistic Psychology and later developed his famous Hierarchy of Needs.
1957	Leon Festinger proposed his theory of 'Cognitive Dissonance' and later became an influence figure in Social Psychology.
1961	John Berry introduced the importance of cross-cultural research bringing diversity into the forefront of psychological research and application.
1961	Carl Rogers published 'On Becoming a Person,' marking a powerful change in how treatment for mental health issues is conducted.
1963	Alfred Bandura introduced the idea of Observational Learning on the development of personality.
1963	Lawrence Kolberg introduced his ideas for the sequencing of morality development.
1967	Aaron Beck published a psychological model of depression suggesting that thoughts play a significant role in the development and maintenance of depression.
1968	DSM II was published by the American Psychiatric Association.
1968	First Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) professional degree program in Clinical Psychology was established in the Department of Psychology at The University of Illinois - Urbana/Champaign.
1969	Joseph Wolpe published 'The Practice of Behavior Therapy.'
1971	First Doctorate in Psychology (Psy.D.) awarded (from The University of Illinois - Urbana/Champaign).
1973	APA endorsed the Psy.D. degree for professional practice in psychology.
1980	DSM III published by the American Psychiatric Association.
1983	Howard Gardner (professor at Harvard University) introduced his theory of multiple intelligence, arguing that intelligence is something to be used to improve lives not to measure and quantify human beings.
1988	American Psychological Society established.
1990	The emergence of managed care prompts the APA to become more political, leading to the idea of Prescribing Psychologists and equity in mental health coverage.
1994	DSM IV published by the American Psychiatric Association.
1995	First Psychologists prescribe medication through the U.S. military's psychopharmacology program.
1997	Deep Blue, the supercomputer at the time, beats the World's best chess player, Kasparov, marking a milestone in the development of artificial intelligence.
1998	Psychology advances to the technological age with the emergence of e-therapy.
1999	Psychologists in Guam gain prescription privileges for psychotropic medication.
2002	New Mexico becomes the first state to pass legislation allowing licensed psychologists to prescribe psychotropic medication.
2002	The push for mental health parity gets the attention of the White House as President George W. Bush promotes legislation that would guarantee comprehensive mental health coverage. 1879 First psychology laboratory Wilhelm Wundt opens first experimental laboratory in psychology at the University of Leipzig, Germany. Credited with establishing psychology as an academic discipline, Wundt's students include Emil Kraepelin, James McKeen Cattell, and G. Stanley Hall. 1883 First American psychology laboratory G. Stanley Hall, a student of Wilhelm Wundt, establishes first U.S. experimental psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University. 1886 First doctorate in psychology The first doctorate in psychology is given to Joseph Jastrow, a student of G. Stanley Hall at Johns Hopkins University. Jastrow later becomes professor of psychology at the University of Wisconsin and serves as president of the American Psychological Association in 1900. 1888 First professor of psychology The academic title "professor of psychology" is given to James McKeen Cattell in 1888, the first use of this designation in the United States. A student of Wilhelm Wundt's, Cattell serves as professor of psychology at University of Pennsylvania and Columbia University. 1892 APA founded G. Stanley Hall founds the American Psychological Association (APA) and serves as its first president. He later establishes two key journals in the field: American Journal of Psychology (1887) and Journal of Applied Psychology (1917). 1896 Functionalism Functionalism, an early school of psychology, focuses on the acts and functions of the mind rather than its internal contents. Its most prominent American advocates are William James and John Dewey, whose 1896 article "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" promotes functionalism. Psychoanalysis The founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, introduces the term in a scholarly paper. Freud's psychoanalytic approach asserts that people are motivated by powerful, unconscious drives and conflicts. He develops an influential therapy based on this assertion, using free association and dream analysis. Structuralism Edward B. Titchener, a leading proponent of structuralism, publishes his Outline of Psychology. Structuralism is the view that all mental experience can be understood as a combination of simple elements or events. This approach focuses on the contents of the mind, contrasting with functionalism. First psychology clinic After heading a laboratory at University of Pennsylvania, Lightner Witmer opens world's first psychological clinic to patients, shifting his focus from experimental work to practical application of his findings. 1900 Interpretation of Dreams Sigmund Freud introduces his theory of psychoanalysis in The Interpretation of Dreams, the first of 24 books he would write exploring such topics as the unconscious, techniques of free association, and sexuality as a driving force in human psychology. 1901 Manual of Experimental Psychology With publication of the Manual of Experimental Psychology, Edward Bradford Titchener introduces structuralism to the United States. Structuralism, an approach which seeks to identify the basic elements of consciousness, fades after Titchener's death in 1927. 1904 First woman president of the APA Mary Calkins is elected president of the APA. Calkins, a professor and researcher at Wellesley College, studied with William James at Harvard University, but Harvard denied her a Ph.D. because of her gender. 1905 IQ tests developed Using standardized tests, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon develop a scale of general intelligence on the basis of mental age. Later researchers refine this work into the concept of intelligence quotient; IQ, mental age over physical age. From their beginning, such tests' accuracy and fairness are challenged. 1908 A Mind That Found Itself Clifford Beers publishes A Mind That Found Itself, detailing his experiences as a patient in 19th-century mental asylums. Calling for more humane treatment of patients and better education about mental illness for the general population, the book inspires the mental hygiene movement in the United States. 1909 Psychoanalysts visit Clark University Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung visit the United States for a Psychoanalysis Symposium at Clark University organized by G. Stanley Hall. At the symposium, Freud gives his only speech in the United States. 1913 Behaviorism John B. Watson publishes "Psychology as Behavior," launching behaviorism. In contrast to psychoanalysis, behaviorism focuses on observable and measurable behavior. 1917 Army intelligence tests implemented Standardized intelligence and aptitude tests are administered to two million U. S. soldiers during WWI. Soon after, such tests are used in all U.S. armed forces branches and in many areas of civilian life, including academic and work settings. 1920 First African American doctorate in psychology Francis Cecil Sumner earns a Ph.D. in psychology under G. Stanley Hall at Clark University. Sumner later serves as chair of the Howard University psychology department.   The Child's Conception of the World Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget publishes The Child's Conception of the World, prompting the study of cognition in the developing child. 1921 Rorschach test created Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach devises a personality test based on patients' interpretations of inkblots. 1925 Menninger Clinic founded Charles Frederick Menninger and his sons Karl Augustus and William Clair found The Menninger Clinic in Topeka, Kansas. They take a compassionate approach to the treatment of mental illness, emphasizing both psychological and psychiatric disciplines. 1927 Menninger Clinic founded First Nobel Prize for psychological research 1929 Electroencephalogram invented Psychiatrist Hans Berger invents the electroencephalogram and tests it on his son. The device graphs the electrical activity of the brain by means of electrodes attached to the head. 1933 Nazi persecution of psychologists After the Nazi party gains control of the government in Germany, scholars and researchers in psychology and psychiatry are persecuted. Many, including Freud, whose books are banned and burned in public rallies, move to Britain or the United States. 1935 Alcoholics Anonymous Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is founded by Bob Smith of Akron, Ohio. AA's group meetings format and 12-step program become the model for many other mutual-support therapeutic groups.   Gestalt psychology Kurt Koffka, a founder of the movement, publishes Principles of Gestalt Psychology in 1935. Gestalt (German for "whole" or "essence") psychology asserts that psychological phenomena must be viewed not as individual elements but as a coherent whole. 1936 First lobotomy in the United States Walter Freeman performs first frontal lobotomy in the United States at George Washington University in Washington, D.C. By 1951, more than 18,000 such operations have been performed. The procedure, intended to relieve severe and debilitating psychosis, is controversial. 1937 The Neurotic Personality of Our Time Psychologist Karen Horney publishes The Neurotic Personality of Our Time. Horney goes on to challenge many of Freud's theories, as have many later psychologists and scholars. Specifically, she questions Freud's theories on the Oedipal Complex and castration anxiety. 1938 The Behavior of Organisms B.F. Skinner publishes The Behavior of Organisms, introducing the concept of operant conditioning. The work draws widespread attention to behaviorism and inspires laboratory research on conditioning.   Electroconvulsive therapy begun Italian psychiatrist and neuropathologist Ugo Cerletti and his associates treat human patients with electrical shocks to alleviate schizophrenia and psychosis. ECT, while controversial, is proven effective in some cases and is still in use in 2001. 1946 The Psychoanalytic Treatment of Children Anna Freud publishes The Psychoanalytic Treatment of Children, introducing basic concepts in the theory and practice of child psychoanalysis.   National Mental Health Act Passed U.S. President Harry Truman signs the National Mental Health Act, providing generous funding for psychiatric education and research for the first time in U.S. history. This act leads to the creation in 1949 of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). 1951 First drug to treat depression Studies are published reporting that the drug imipramine may be able to lessen depression. Eight years later, the FDA approves its use in the United States under the name Tofranil. 1952 Thorazine tested The anti-psychotic drug chlorpromazine (known as Thorazine) is tested on a patient in a Paris military hospital. Approved for use in the United States in 1954, it becomes widely prescribed. 1953 APA Ethical Standards The American Psychological Association publishes the first edition of Ethical Standards of Psychologists. The document undergoes continuous review and is now known as APA's Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. 1954 Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy... In Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain, neurosurgeon Wilder G. Penfield publishes results from his study of the neurology of epilepsy. His mapping of the brain's cortex sets a precedent for the brain-imaging techniques that become critical to biopsychology and cognitive neuroscience. The Nature of Prejudice Social Psychologist Gordon Allport publishes The Nature of Prejudice, which draws on various approaches in psychology to examine prejudice through different lenses. It is widely read by the general public and influential in establishing psychology's usefulness in understanding social issues.   Biopsychology In his studies of epilepsy, neuroscientist Wilder G. Penfield begins to uncover the relationship between chemical activity in the brain and psychological phenomena. His findings set the stage for widespread research on the biological role in psychological phenomena. Psychopharmacology The development of psychoactive drugs in the 1950s and their approval by the FDA initiates a new form of treatment for mental illness. Among the first such drugs is Doriden, also known as Rorer, an anti-anxiety medication approved in 1954. Humanistic Psychology In the wake of psychoanalysis and behaviorism, humanistic psychology emerges as the "third force" in psychology. Led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, who publishes Motivation and Personality in 1954, this approach centers on the conscious mind, free will, human dignity, and the capacity for self-actualization. 1956 Cognitive psychology Inspired by work in mathematics and other disciplines, psychologists begin to focus on cognitive states and processes. George A. Miller's 1956 article "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two" on information processing is an early application of the cognitive approach. 1957 Syntactic Structures Noam Chomsky publishes Syntactic Structures, marking a major advancement in the study of linguistics. The book helps spawn the field of psycholinguistics, the psychology of language. 1960 FDA approves Librium The FDA approves the use of chlordiazepoxide (known as Librium) for treatment of non-psychotic anxiety in 1960. A similar drug, diazepam (Valium), is approved in 1963. 1963 Community Mental Health Centers Act passed U.S. President John F. Kennedy calls for and later signs the Community Mental Health Centers Act, which mandates the construction of community facilities instead of large, regional mental hospitals. Congress ends support for the program in 1981, reducing overall funds and folding them into a mental health block-grant program. 1964 First National Medal of Science to psychologist Neal E. Miller receives the National Medal of Science, the highest scientific honor given in the United States, for his studies of motivation and learning. He is the first psychologist to be awarded this honor. 1964 FDA approves Lithium The FDA approves lithium carbonate to treat patients with bipolar mood disorders. It is marketed under the trade names Eskalith, Lithonate, and Lithane. 1973 Homosexuality removed from DSM After intense debate, the American Psychiatric Association removes homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The widely used reference manual is revised to state that sexual orientation "does not necessarily constitute a psychiatric disorder." 1974 PET scanner tested A new brain scanning technique, Positron Emission Tomography (PET), is tested. By tracing chemical markers, PET maps brain function in more detail than earlier techniques. 1976 Evolutionary psychology Richard Dawkins publishes The Selfish Gene, which begins to popularize the idea of evolutionary psychology. This approach applies principles from evolutionary biology to the structure and function of the human brain. It offers new ways of looking at social phenomena such as aggression and sexual behavior.   The Selfish Gene Richard Dawkins publishes The Selfish Gene, a work which shifts focus from the individual animal as the unit of evolution to individual genes themselves. The text popularizes the field of evolutionary psychology, in which knowledge and principles from evolutionary biology are applied in research on human brain structure. 1979 Standardized IQ tests found discriminatory The U.S. District Court finds the use of standardized IQ tests in California public schools illegal. The decision in the case, Larry P. v. Wilson Riles, upholds the plaintiff's position that the tests discriminate against African American students. 1981 AIDS and HIV first diagnosed The epidemic of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection presents mental health professionals with challenges ranging from at-risk patients' anxiety and depression to AIDS-related dementia. 1984 Insanity Defense Reform Act passed U.S. Congress revises federal law on the insanity defense, partly in response to the acquittal of John Hinckley, Jr. of charges of attempted assassination after he had shot President Ronald Reagan. The act places burden of proof for the insanity defense on the defendant. 1987 Homeless Assistance Act passed The Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act provides the first federal funds allocated specifically for the homeless population. The act includes provisions for mental health services, and responds, in part, to psychological studies on homelessness and mental disorders.   Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft made available The FDA approves the new anti-depressant medication fluoxetine, (Prozac). The drug, and other similar medications, acts on neurotransmitters, specifically, serotonin. It is widely prescribed and attracts attention and debate. 1990 Cultural psychology In Acts of Meaning, Four Lectures on Mind and Culture, Jerome Bruner helps formulate cultural psychology, an approach drawing on philosophy, linguistics, and anthropology. Refined and expanded by Hazel Markus and other researchers, cultural psychology focuses on the influences and relationship among mind, cultural community and behavior. 2000 Sequencing of the Human Genome Sixteen public research institutions around the world complete a "working draft" mapping of the human genetic code, providing a research basis for a new understanding of human development and disease. A similar, privately funded, project is currently underway.   DSM on PDA The latest revision of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is published in a version for personal digital assistants (PDAs). The manual, first published in 1954, outlines prevalence, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders. Only 132 pages on first printing, in 2000 it was 980 pages.